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Principles of Periodization By David E. Martin and Peter Coe

In athletic circles worldwide, one word is mentioned more frequently than any other when athletes and coaches discuss goals and plans: periodization. This impressive-sounding term refers simply to the specific time scale and format for all the various parts of a training plan. Such a format takes into consideration the four primary aspects of adaptation to training:

Initial tissue catabolism that occurs from the load applied (running, weight lifting, etc.) and causes an initial reduction in performance capabilities
Adaptation to the stress of training as a result of tissue recovery and improved mental outlook from having successfully completed the work
Retention and likely improvement in such performance characteristics following a tapering of training
Reduction in performance if training volume is decreased for too long a period

Thus, the training life of an athlete is a constant cycle of hard work (with fatigue), recovery (with regeneration), improvement in performance (for a brief period), and brief layoff (for mental and physical rest) to permit another cycle to repeat.

Preparing a training outline involves the delineation of several kinds of information. First, all the units required to achieve the various goals must be identified. By units we mean general training assignments. Some examples include longer-distance runs at moderate speed, upper-body strength training, and shorter-distance, faster runs. Second, training schedules need to identify the sessions appropriate to each unit. A session is a specific training assignment that identifies the volume, intensity, and density of effort that should provide a beneficial training effect. (These three parameters will also be defined shortly.) One session might include 6 x 800-m runs at 80% maximal effort up a 4% hill with a 2-min rest between runs. Another might include 8 x 1,500-m runs at 90% of VO2max pace, with a 3-min recovery between runs. Still another might include 3 x 15 split squats with a 20-kg weight on the shoulders. Finally, specific intermediate test situations (small races, time trials, a treadmill stress test, etc.) need to be scheduled as training proceeds to evaluate progress in achieving the ultimate goal of being ready for the major competitive period at the proper time.

In short, the value of periodization is that it permits a documented, methodical, incremental, and logical growth and development outline for the individual athlete and coach. Both must consider carefully what will be done. Their ideas are thrust into the spotlight of reason. The objective of training is to bring an athlete to a peak fitness level at the proper time, with all the requirements for good performance brought along in balance. Periodization permits this balanced progression by ensuring that the appropriate mix is put together into a unified plan. Much has been written about periodization because it is essential for organizing athletic development (Bompa 1988, 1993; Charniga et al. 1986-87; Dick 1975; Freeman 1989).

Now that we've identified the need for a comprehensive, periodized, master plan, it may seem contradictory to state that the essence of a good master plan is its malleability-its ability to be changed as required to ensure its optimal effectiveness. In a periodization scheme it is unnecessary and impractical to write initially the exact details of each day's training on a day-to-day basis for a year in advance. Some coaches do, and their athletes become locked into (and victims of) a plan that becomes less appropriate over time. Continual adjustment of a training scheme is required to recognize (and take advantage of)

variable rates of adaptation to specific training,
small setbacks such as a minor injury, and
personal life vicissitudes that temporarily demand increased attention.

Thus, a generalized but well-thought-out master plan, with all its parts laid out in perspective, provides a reference point from which an intelligent beginning and reasoned continuity can occur. Without such a plan, athlete and coach are perpetually adrift, not knowing what to do or why and thus selecting training by whim.

Training and Periodization Terminology

Good communication is easiest when clear understanding exists between communicator and listener. Hence the origin of the familiar phrase "Say what you mean and mean what you say." Reasonably specific terminology is used for describing the periodization of training and the kinds of adaptation that occur. To familiarize readers with these terms, we will summarize their definitions.

Training is a sequence of activities done for the purpose of increasing efficiency and effectiveness in sport performance. In this instance, performance refers to quality of training and racing. Training improves several performance variables, identified many years ago by Nett (1965), including strength, defined as the quantity of muscular force exerted against resistance, and speed, which is the ability to perform body movements quickly, successively, and successfully. A good sprinter has excellent speed.

Endurance is also required for good running and racing; this is simply the ability to sustain submaximal activity for a prolonged period. A good marathoner has enormous endurance. There are two types of endurance. Aerobic endurance, or stamina, is the ability to cope with fatigue while working primarily aerobically at a high effort load over a long (but not indefinite) period. Stamina is sometimes thought of as the ability to handle speed over time. A male 10,000-m runner doing a session of 2 x 3,000 m at 85% of his 5,000-m race pace is developing stamina. So is a female 5,000-m runner coping with a track session of 3 x 2,000-m runs at 80% of her 5,000-m race pace. Anaerobic endurance, or speed endurance, is the ability to tolerate fatigue and maintain both pace and form while running at near-maximal intensities for relatively short distances. Repeat 400-m training is one example of work that will develop speed endurance. Fatigue is a sensation of increasing difficulty in performing at a given work load while still maintaining previous efficiency. (These definitions receive closer scrutiny in chapter 8 where we discuss overtraining.)

Three terms-macrocycle, mesocycle, and microcycle-describe various phases of a training period. A macrocycle is a developmental period of considerable length directed toward achievement of a peak of maximal performance fitness. For many athletes, particularly track-oriented middle-distance runners, this may require nearly a year. As an example, an athlete may begin training during the fall and aim ultimately for best performance at the national championships the following late spring or early summer (or even later). For others, such a long period may not be required. For example, top-level marathon runners who remain injury free with excellent general fitness can work well with a cycle that repeats every four to five months. There are 10 to 12 weeks of intense preparation, a few weeks of tapering, then the race, and a month of mental and physical recovery (Lenzi 1987). This is why the world's healthiest and most consistent marathoners typically compete no more than two to three times a year.

Training macrocycles are compartmentalized into several smaller developmental periods. A mesocycle is a period of anywhere from a few weeks to a few months, typically with a specific developmental objective different from the mesocycle preceding and following it. One mesocycle may emphasize development of an endurance base; another may represent a period of fine-tuning. Each mesocycle consists of at least one microcycle--a period of no more than two weeks during which a meaningful and focused block of training can be completed. Intermediate-level competitive events or time trials may be scheduled along the way, typically at the end of a microcycle or mesocycle, to permit the assessment of developing fitness.

After goal identification has permitted the outline of an overall training macrocycle, the next task is to delineate the objectives and goals for each mesocycle and microcycle. A wide variety of activities should be planned. Running and comprehensive conditioning obviously form the backbone of the training plan, with other aspects included as well, such as a stretching program, recuperative modalities (e.g., massage), and periodic health and fitness evaluation. But how do we describe the details of each training session of each microcycle that constitute the work load outlined to achieve the developmental goals of optimal preparation when it counts?

Several terms permit specific description of each day's training sessions. They relate closely to the classic questions that athletes ask their coaches when they meet for a training period. We'll use the running portion of training as an example.
"How far must I run?" That's volume. (The answer to the athlete might be "Ten runs of 200 m on the track.")
"When are we going to do these again?" That's frequency. ("Once more this microcycle, six days from now.")
"How fast must I run them?" That's intensity, or duration. ("Start at 33 s/200 m, eventually quickening to 30 s/200 m.")
"How much recovery (rest) can I have between each run?" That's density. ("One-and-a-half minutes in jogging back to the 200-m mark on the track.")

Jogging for most runners is defined as very slow running-7 to 8 min/mi for talented young-adult men (4:21 to 4:58 min/km) and 8 to 9 min/mi for talented young-adult women (4:58 to 5:36 min/km). For runners not so talented, as well as for older runners, these paces would be slower. Jogging is more energy costly than walking.

Now let's define more formally these descriptors of training load. Training volume is simply the quantity of training done during a given time period-work done per microcycle, total push-ups done on a given day, total weight lifted in one session, total distance run on a day of repeated 200-m runs, and so on. It is a specific quantity that can be expressed in any of several time frames. Training frequency refers to the number of sessions completed during a particular time period, or to the recurrence of a given training session during such a period, be it macrocycle, mesocycle, or microcycle. Some microcycles, for example, will have a training frequency of two sessions each day. On the other hand, repeated 1,000-m runs may be assigned a frequency of once every two weeks. Some exercises may be done nearly every day, such as sit-ups, push-ups, or aerobic conditioning runs. Other exercises, such as upper-body strengthening in the weight room, may be done once or perhaps twice each week.

Training intensity identifies the quality of completed effort and is related inversely to volume. Thus, as training intensity rises, the volume assigned decreases. A medium-intensity, high-volume run might be 10 mi at a 6:15 min/mi pace (3:53 min/km) for a good female 10,000-m runner. However, five repeated mile runs at a 5:00 min/mi pace (3:06 min/km) for that athlete would represent a far more intense training stimulus, but with reduced volume. The analog in strength training (weight lifting) would be the relationship of the load lifted with each repetition to that athlete's one repetition maximum.

As a macrocycle progresses, although the net weekly training load may remain the same, total volume decreases because intensity increases. Also, more event-specific special exercises are emphasized as the eventual final peak is approached. For each event specialty, these exercises may be quite different, but they typically also involve shorter, more intense training sessions.

Training density defines the rest pause between work bouts. The shorter the rest pause, the greater the stimulus density. Two 300-m runs on a track, each done in 44 s with a 2-min rest between, are a stimulus of greater density than two 300-m runs at the same speed but with a 3-min rest between each run. The rest pause can vary from a few seconds to several minutes, depending on the purpose of the session. Confusing jargon has developed among coaches in categorizing or identifying daily training sessions. It would be far preferable to be specific and informative, but such seems not to be in vogue, the result being worldwide difficulty in communications. Thus, one reads or hears about "cut-downs," but there is no knife or scissors involved. There are "breakdowns," but no one wants to really break down an athlete. There are "go's," meaning that after a specific recovery time (e.g., 2 min) the athlete begins the next run (a 2-min "go"). There are "ladders" (but no one is climbing), "clocks," "pyramids," and many more. All are simply variations on the theme of runs and rests, but they cause needless confusion since acceptable terminology is already established. Then there are phrases such as "tempo running," "interval running," and "repetition running" (Daniels and Scardina 1984; Wilt 1968), whose meanings vary quite a bit not only around the English-speaking world, but also between middle-distance and long-distance coaches. For example, some correctly use the term "interval" for the distance run, but others consider it the recovery time between runs. If a single factor has prevented effective coaching interchange in the sporting world, it is this all-too-frequent use of jargon that has different meanings to different people and event specialties.

Such complexity and confusion is unnecessary. Any running assignment should include specific directions, using terms that have clear meanings in common usage. Assignments given by one coach to a group of athletes should be unambiguous to another group of athletes being tutored by a different coach. The terminology is as follows. Athletes run a specific distance for a specific period of time; this is the interval of running. Chances are that they'll do this more than once. Several intervals of the same distance are referred to as repetitions (reps). Following each running interval, a specified recovery time permits a varying amount of rest, complete or incomplete. Groups of intervals are called sets, and the recovery time between sets is typically longer than the recovery time between runs within a set. Finally, each run is done at an assigned velocity, or pace or tempo. If the athlete is running as fast as possible, that's maximal pace. If it is slower than maximum, it's submaximal pace. It's as simple as that.

Using the preceding terminology, one example of a training session is 10 intervals of 200 m at 28-s pace (i.e., 10 runs of 200 m are each done in 28 s) with a 55-s jog between repetitions. In coaches' shorthand, this might be written as 10 x 200 m @ 28 s (55-s jog). This session would be quite difficult: The athlete is running quickly and has very little recovery rest. Another example is a series of fast interval runs at 85% of maximal pace, the first lasting 5 min, the second 4 min, the third 3 min, the fourth 2 min, and finishing with four 1-min runs. The first two recovery times are 4 min, the next two are, respectively, 3 and 2 min, and there is 1 min of recovery between each of the 1-min efforts. Again, using coaching shorthand, this session could be written as 5 min (4 min rec) + 4 min (4 rec) + 3 min (3 rec) + 2 min (2 rec) + (4 3 1 min) (1 min rec each).

The examples of training assignments given here represent only two of myriad combinations of higher-intensity, good-quality repetitions of an interval of distance run at a given tempo. Typically, such runs fit into the physiological performance zones of anaerobic conditioning or aerobic and anaerobic capacity training. Later in this chapter we will provide guidelines for more exact categorization of training assignments into these various zones. In turn this will provide a basis for intelligent structuring and manipulation of such assignments to best fit developmental needs.

Excerpted from Better Training for Distance Runners, 2nd Edition, 1997, by David E. Martin and Peter Coe.

Additional Running excerpt.